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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Russian Journal of Infection and Immunity</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Russian Journal of Infection and Immunity</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Инфекция и иммунитет</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2220-7619</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-7398</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">SPb RAACI</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">1968</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15789/2220-7619-RAA-1968</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ORIGINAL ARTICLES</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОРИГИНАЛЬНЫЕ СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Reduced amino acid alphabet-based encoding and its impact on modeling influenza antigenic evolution</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Кодирование с помощью сокращенного аминокислотного алфавита и его влияние на моделирование антигенной эволюции гриппа</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Forghani</surname><given-names>M.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Форгани</surname><given-names>М.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD (Physics and Mathematics), Researcher</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>
</p><p>к.ф.-м.наук, научный сотрудник</p>
</bio><email>majid.forqani@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Firstkov</surname><given-names>A. L.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Фирстков</surname><given-names>А. Л.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Mathematician of the First Category</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>
</p><p>математик первой категории</p>
</bio><email>firstk121@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Alyannezhadi</surname><given-names>M. M.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Аляннеджади</surname><given-names>М. M.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="IR">Iran, Islamic Republic of</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Doctor in Computer Science (Specialty: Artificial Intelligence), Associate Professor, Researcher and Lecturer</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>
</p><p>к.комп.н. (специальность: искусственный интеллект), доцент, научный сотрудник и преподаватель</p>
</bio><email>alyan.nezhadip@mazust.ac.ir</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Danilenko</surname><given-names>D. M.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Даниленко</surname><given-names>Д. М.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD (Biology), Deputy Director for Scientific Work, Head of the Department of Etiology and Epidemiology</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>к.б.н., зам. директора по научной работе, руководитель отдела этиологии и эпидемиологии</p></bio><email>daria.baibus@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Komissarov</surname><given-names>A. B.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Комиссаров</surname><given-names>А. Б.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Virology</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>зав. лабораторией молекулярной вирусологии</p></bio><email>a.b.komissarov@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">N. Krasovskii Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IMM UB RAS)</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГБУН Институт математики и механики им. Н.Н. Красовского Уральского отделения Российской академии наук</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">N.N. Krasovskii Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IMM UB RAS)</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГБУН Институт математики и механики им. Н.Н. Красовского Уральского отделения Российской академии наук</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">University of Science and Technology of Mazandaran</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет науки и технологии Мазандарана</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff4"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГБУ НИИ гриппа имени А.А. Смородинцева Минздрава России</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="preprint" iso-8601-date="2022-10-10" publication-format="electronic"><day>10</day><month>10</month><year>2022</year></pub-date><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2022-11-16" publication-format="electronic"><day>16</day><month>11</month><year>2022</year></pub-date><volume>12</volume><issue>5</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en"/><issue-title xml:lang="ru"/><fpage>837</fpage><lpage>849</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2022-05-31"><day>31</day><month>05</month><year>2022</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2022-08-06"><day>06</day><month>08</month><year>2022</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2022, Forghani M., Firstkov A.L., Alyannezhadi M.M., Danilenko D.M., Komissarov A.B.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2022, Форгани М., Фирстков А.Л., Аляннеджади М.M., Даниленко Д.М., Комиссаров А.Б.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2022</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Forghani M., Firstkov A.L., Alyannezhadi M.M., Danilenko D.M., Komissarov A.B.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Форгани М., Фирстков А.Л., Аляннеджади М.M., Даниленко Д.М., Комиссаров А.Б.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://iimmun.ru/iimm/article/view/1968">https://iimmun.ru/iimm/article/view/1968</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Currently, vaccination is one of the most efficient ways to control and prevent influenza infection. Vaccine production largely relies on the results of laboratory assays, including hemagglutination inhibition and microneutralization assays, which are time-consuming and laborious. Viruses can escape from the immune response that results in the need to revise and update vaccines biannually. The hemagglutination inhibition assay can measure how effectively antibodies against a reference strain bind and block an antigen of the test strain. Various computer-aided models have been developed to optimize candidate vaccine strain selection. A general problem in modeling of antigenic evolution is the representation of genetic sequences for input into the research model. Our motivation stems from the well-known problem of encoding genetic information for modeling antigenic evolution. This paper introduces a two-fold encoding approach based on reduced amino acid alphabet and amino acid index databases called AAindex. We propose to apply a simplified amino acid alphabet in modeling of antigenic evolution. A simplified alphabet, also called a sub-alphabet or reduced amino acid alphabet, implies to use the 20 amino acids being clustered and divided into amino acid groups. The proposed encoding allows to redefine mutations termed for amino acid groups located in reduced alphabets. We investigated 40 reduced amino acid sets and their performance in modeling antigenic evolution. The experimental results indicate that the proposed reduced amino acid alphabets can achieve the performance of the standard alphabet in its accuracy. Moreover, these alphabets provide deeper insight into various aspects of the relationship between mutation and antigenic variation. By checking identified high-impact sites in the Influenza Research Database, we found that not only antigenic sites have a significant influence on antigenicity, but also other amino acids located in close proximity. The results indicate that all selected non-antigenic sites are related to immune responses. According to the Influenza Research Database, these have been experimentally determined to be T-cell epitopes, B-cell epitopes, and MHC-binding epitopes of different classes. This highlighted a caveat: while simulating antigenic evolution, the model should consider not only the genetic information on antigenic sites, but also that of neighboring positions, as they may indirectly impact antigenicity. Additionally, our findings indicate that structural and charge characteristics are the most beneficial in modeling antigenic evolution, which is in agreement with previous studies.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>В настоящее время, вакцинация является одним из наиболее эффективных способов контроля и профилактики гриппозной инфекции. Производство вакцин в основном зависит от результатов лабораторных анализов, включая анализ реакции торможения гемагглютинации и микронейтрализации, которые требуют много времени и труда. Вирусы могут избегать иммунного ответа, что приводит к необходимости пересмотра и обновления вакцин два раза в год. Анализ реакции торможения гемагглютинации позволяет измерить, насколько эффективно антитела против эталонного штамма связывают и блокируют антиген испытуемого штамма. Для оптимизации выбора вакцинного штамма-кандидата были разработаны различные компьютерные модели. Одной из общих проблем в моделировании антигенной эволюции является представление генетических последовательностей для ввода в исследовательскую модель. Наша мотивация связана с хорошо известной проблемой кодирования генетической информации для моделирования антигенной эволюции. В данной работе представлен двухэтапный подход к кодированию, основанный на сокращенных аминокислотных алфавитах и базах данных аминокислотных индексов под названием AAindex. Мы предлагаем использовать упрощенные аминокислотные алфавиты для моделирования антигенной эволюции. Упрощенный алфавит, также называемый субалфавитом или сокращенным аминокислотным алфавитом, это алфавит, в котором 20 аминокислот разделены на группы. Предложенное кодирование позволяет переопределить мутации в терминах групп аминокислот, расположенных в сокращенном алфавите. Мы исследовали 40 сокращенных алфавитов и их эффективность при моделировании антигенной эволюции. Результаты экспериментов показывают, что предложенные сокращенные аминокислотные алфавиты могут достичь показателей стандартного алфавита по точности. Более того, эти алфавиты позволяют лучше понять взаимосвязь между мутациями и антигенными изменениями с различных точек зрения. Проверив полученные высокоэффективные сайты в исследовательской базе данных гриппа (Influenza Research Database), мы обнаружили, что не только антигенные сайты оказывают значительное влияние на антигенность, но и их соседние аминокислоты. Результаты показывают, что все выбранные неантигенные участки связаны с иммунным ответом. Согласно исследовательской базе данных гриппа, экспериментально установлено, что это эпитопы Т-клеток, эпитопы В-клеток и MHC-связывающие эпитопы различных классов. Это подчеркивает значимость того, что: при моделировании антигенной эволюции модель должна учитывать не только генетическую информацию антигенных участков, но и генетическую информацию соседних позиций, поскольку они могут косвенно влиять на антигенность. Кроме того, наши результаты показывают, что, в соответствии с предыдущими исследованиями, структурные и зарядовые характеристики аминокислот являются наиболее значимыми при моделировании антигенной эволюции.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>AAindex</kwd><kwd>antigenic evolution</kwd><kwd>hemagglutinin</kwd><kwd>influenza</kwd><kwd>modeling</kwd><kwd>reduced amino acid alphabet</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>AAindex</kwd><kwd>антигенная эволюция</kwd><kwd>гемагглютинин</kwd><kwd>грипп</kwd><kwd>моделирование</kwd><kwd>сокращенный аминокислотный алфавит</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Andersen C.A., Brunak S. Representation of protein-sequence information by amino acid subalphabets. AI Magazine, 2004, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 97–101. doi: 10.1609/aimag.v25i1.1750</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>Arinaminpathy N., Grenfell B. 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