<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE root>
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="other" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Russian Journal of Infection and Immunity</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Russian Journal of Infection and Immunity</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Инфекция и иммунитет</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2220-7619</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-7398</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">SPb RAACI</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">18108</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15789/2220-7619-PAG-18108</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ORIGINAL ARTICLES</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОРИГИНАЛЬНЫЕ СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Unknown</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">PREVALENCE AND GENOTYPE GROUPS OF HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS AND DIAGNOSTIC PERFORMANCE OF PAP SMEAR IN CERVICAL SAMPLES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA TEACHING HOSPITAL, NIGERIA</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>РАСПРОСТРАНЕННОСТЬ И ГЕНОТИПНЫЕ ГРУППЫ ВИРУСА ПАПИЛЛОМЫ ЧЕЛОВЕКА И ДИАГНОСТИЧЕСКАЯ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПАП-МАЗКА В ОБРАЗЦАХ ШЕЙКИ МАТКИ В УЧЕБНОЙ БОЛЬНИЦЕ УНИВЕРСИТЕТА АБУДЖИ, НИГЕРИЯ</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Engom</surname><given-names>A.O.G.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Энгом</surname><given-names>А. О. Г.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MSc, Medical Laboratory Scientist, Department of Medical Laboratory Services, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>магистр наук, врач-лаборант, кафедра медицинской лабораторной диагностики, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>ovye.alaba@uniabuja.edu.ng</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Adisa</surname><given-names>J.O.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Адиса</surname><given-names>Дж. О.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NE">Niger</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD, Professor of Histopathology, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат наук, профессор гистопатологии, кафедра медицинской лабораторной диагностики, Университет Джоса, Джос, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>j.adisa@unijos.edu.ng</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5511-1272</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Abdullahi</surname><given-names>Idris Nasir</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Абдуллахи</surname><given-names>Идрис Насир</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD, DSc (Hons)</p>
<p>Department of Medical Laboratory Science,</p>
<p>College of Medical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат философии, доктор наук (с отличием)</p>
<p>Кафедра медицинской лабораторной науки,</p>
<p>Колледж медицинских наук, Университет Ахмаду Белло, Зария, Нигерия</p></bio><email>eedris888@yahoo.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Oricha</surname><given-names>Stephen</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Орича</surname><given-names>Стивен</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Medical Laboratory Scientist, Department of Medical Laboratory Services, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>магистр наук, врач-лаборант, кафедра медицинской лабораторной диагностики, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>oricha44@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Aseku</surname><given-names>O. R.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Асеку</surname><given-names>О. Р.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MBBS, Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>бакалавр медицины и бакалавр хирургии, врач-консультант в области акушерства и гинекологии, отделение акушерства и гинекологии, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия</p></bio><email>asekuraphael@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Nongo</surname><given-names>B. H.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Нонго</surname><given-names>Б. Х.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MBBS, Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>бакалавр медицины и бакалавр хирургии, врач-консультант в области акушерства и гинекологии, отделение акушерства и гинекологии, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>bennongo@yahoo.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Adelowo</surname><given-names>A. O.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Аделово</surname><given-names>А. О.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MBBS, Consultant Pathologist, Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>бакалавр медицины и бакалавр хирургии, врач-патологоанатом, отделение патологии и судебной медицины, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>abdul.adelowo@uniabuja.edu.ng</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Okonu</surname><given-names>B. A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Укону</surname><given-names>Б. А.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="NG">Nigeria</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MBBS, Consultant Physician, Department of Family Medicine, University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>врач-консультант, отделение семейной медицины, больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия.</p></bio><email>bobify@yahoo.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Джоса, Джос, Нигерия</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Abuja, Nigeria</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Больница Университета Абуджи, Гвагвалада, Абуджа, Нигерия</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Ахмаду Белло, Зария, Нигерия</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="preprint" iso-8601-date="2026-04-02" publication-format="electronic"><day>02</day><month>04</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-12-25"><day>25</day><month>12</month><year>2025</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2026-03-29"><day>29</day><month>03</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; , Engom A., Adisa J., Abdullahi I.N., Oricha S., Aseku O., Nongo B., Adelowo A., Okonu B.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; , Engom A., Adisa J., Abdullahi I., Oricha S., Aseku O., Nongo B., Adelowo A., Okonu B.</copyright-statement><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Engom A., Adisa J., Abdullahi I.N., Oricha S., Aseku O., Nongo B., Adelowo A., Okonu B.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Engom A., Adisa J., Abdullahi I., Oricha S., Aseku O., Nongo B., Adelowo A., Okonu B.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://iimmun.ru/iimm/article/view/18108">https://iimmun.ru/iimm/article/view/18108</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p><bold><italic>Aim:</italic></bold></p> <p>Infections with high-risk genotypes of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) are the primary etiological factor for cervical cancer (CC). However, the Papanicolaou (Pap) test without adjunctive virological confirmation has been the mainstay of CC diagnosis in resource-limited settings. This study determined the frequency of HPV infection, genotype groups, and performance characteristics of the Pap test in cervical samples at the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital (UATH), Nigeria.</p> <p><bold><italic>Methods:</italic></bold></p> <p>Ninety-seven (97) cervical smears were retrieved using the cytology register, and previously liquid-based pap smear-stained slides were recalled and re-examined, and the retrieved samples were processed and analysed using the Polymerase chain Reaction (PCR) and microscopy following Pap staining. The agreement level of PCR and Pap staining was evaluated.</p> <p><bold><italic>Results:</italic></bold></p> <p>Of the samples tested, 25.8% (n=25) were HPV DNA positive. The prevalence of HPV was significantly higher among participants aged 20-30 years (OR=10, 95% CI: 1.3-79.3, <italic>p</italic>=0.0293). About 6.2%, 8.2%, and 17.5% of the participants carried the low carcinogenic risk (group 3), definite carcinogenic risk (group 1), and probable/possible carcinogenic risk (group 2A/B) genotype groups, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and accuracy of the Pap test in detecting HPV-induced cervical changes were 50%, 93.3%, 66.7%, 87.5% and 84.2%, respectively. Remarkably, 24.4% (10/41), 30.7% (12/39) and 33.3% (2/6) of participants with Pap smear-negative, LSIL and HSIL, respectively, were HPV DNA-positive.</p> <p><bold><italic>Conclusion:</italic></bold></p> <p>The possible/probable carcinogenic risk HPV genotype group was the most prevalent among participants, exceeding the prevalence of the definite carcinogenic risk genotype group, reflecting regional epidemiological characteristics and underscoring the need to consider these genotypes when selecting optimal test systems. The low sensitivity of the Pap test (50%) in detecting HPV-induced cervical changes underscores the need for HPV-based screening methods.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Цель:</p> <p>Инфицирование вирусами папилломы человека (ВПЧ) высокого онкогенного риска является ведущим этиологическим фактором рака шейки матки (РШМ). Однако в условиях ограниченных ресурсов основным методом диагностики РШМ остается цитологическое исследование по Папаниколау (Пап-тест) без дополнительного вирусологического подтверждения. В настоящем исследовании была определена частота ВПЧ-инфекции, генотипические группы и характеристики эффективности Пап-теста в образцах шейки матки, полученных в Университетской клинической больнице Абуджи (UATH), Нигерия.</p> <p>Методы:</p> <p>Девяносто семь (97) мазков из шейки матки было получено из цитологического регистра, а ранее окрашенные по Папаниколау препараты были исследованы повторно. Полученные образцы были обработаны и проанализированы с использованием полимеразной цепной реакции (ПЦР) и микроскопии после окрашивания по Папаниколау. Оценена степень соответствия результатов ПЦР и окрашивания по Папаниколау.</p> <p>Результаты:</p> <p>Из протестированных образцов 25,8% (n=25) оказались положительными на ДНК ВПЧ. Распространенность ВПЧ была значительно выше среди лиц в возрасте 20-30 лет (ОР=10, 95% ДИ: 1,3-79,3, p=0,0293). Около 6,2%, 8,2% и 17,5% участников имели генотипы с низким канцерогенным риском (группа 3), выраженным канцерогенным риском (группа 1) и вероятным/возможным канцерогенным риском (группа 2A/B) соответственно. Чувствительность, специфичность, положительная прогностическая ценность, отрицательная прогностическая ценность и точность цитологического исследования по Папаниколау при выявлении изменений шейки матки, вызванных ВПЧ, составили 50%, 93,3%, 66,7%, 87,5% и 84,2% соответственно. Примечательно, что ДНК ВПЧ была обнаружена у 24,4% (10/41), 30,7% (12/39) и 33,3% (2/6) участников с отрицательным результатом мазка Папаниколау, LSIL и HSIL соответственно.</p> <p>Заключение:</p> <p>У обследованных лиц преобладала группа генотипов ВПЧ с возможным/вероятным, а не высоким канцерогенным риском, что отражает географические эпидемиологические особенности и подчеркивает необходимость учета этих генотипов при выборе оптимальных тест-систем. Низкая чувствительность цитологического исследования (50%) при выявлении изменений шейки матки, вызванных ВПЧ, подчеркивает необходимость скрининговых методов на обнаружение ВПЧ.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>Human Papillomavirus</kwd><kwd>Cervical cancer</kwd><kwd>Nigeria</kwd><kwd>High-risk HPV, Papanicolaou test</kwd><kwd>Performance characteristics.</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>Вирус папилломы человека</kwd><kwd>рак шейки матки</kwd><kwd>Нигерия</kwd><kwd>ВПЧ высокого риска</kwd><kwd>цитологическое исследование</kwd><kwd>характеристики эффективности.</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Abubakar, Y., Ajang, A. Y., Ella, E. E., Oguntayo, A. O., &amp; Aminu, M. Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus Infection and its Association with the Risk of Cervical Cancer among HIV-Positive Women in Plateau State, North-Central Nigeria. UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research (UJMR), 2024, 9(1), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2491.016</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>Adejo, D., Aminu, M., Ella, E., Oguntayo, O., &amp; Obishakin, O. Prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus genotypes among apparently healthy women with normal and abnormal cervical cytology in Kaduna State, Nigeria. African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology, 2024, 25(1), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68344-4</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>Akarolo-Anthony, S. N., Famooto, A. O., Dareng, E. O., Olaniyan, O. B., Offiong, R., Wheeler, C. M., &amp; Adebamowo, C. A. Age-specific prevalence of human papilloma virus infection among Nigerian women. BMC public health, 2014, 14, 656.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-656</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><mixed-citation>Ali, M., Sinha, R., Kumar, A., Karim, S., Irfan, M., Kumar, S., Sinha, S., Kumar, A., Ghosh, A., &amp; Singh, M. HPV DNA status and clinical history of patients are supplements for accurate reporting of the cytological Pap smear. Scientific reports, 2024, 14(1), 17486. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68344-4</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><mixed-citation>Alrajjal, A., Pansare, V., Choudhury, M. S. R., Khan, M. Y. A., &amp; Shidham, V. B. Squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL: LSIL, HSIL, ASCUS, ASC-H, LSIL-H) of Uterine Cervix and Bethesda System. CytoJournal, 2021, 18, 16.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.25259/Cytojournal_24_2021</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><mixed-citation>Anoruo, O., Bristow, C., Mody, N., &amp; Klausner, J. D. Estimated prevalence of human papillomavirus among Nigerian women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. African journal of reproductive health, 2022, 26(6), 89–96.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.29063/ajrh2022/v26i6.10</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><mixed-citation>Ashaka, O. S., Omoare, A. A., James, A. B., Adeyemi, O. O., Oladiji, F., Adeniji, K. A., Okunade, K. S., &amp; Agbede, O. O. Prevalence and Risk Factors of Genital Human Papillomavirus Infections among Women in Lagos, Nigeria. Tropical medicine and infectious disease, 2022, 7(11), 386.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7110386</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><mixed-citation>Cervical cancer causes, risk factors, and prevention. Cancer.gov. 2024.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><mixed-citation>https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/causes-risk-prevention.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation>Cosmas, N. T., Nimzing, L., Egah, D., Famooto, A., Adebamowo, S. N., &amp; Adebamowo, C. A. Prevalence of vaginal HPV infection among adolescent and early adult girls in Jos, North-Central Nigeria. BMC infectious diseases, 2022, 22(1), 340.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-022-07215-7</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><mixed-citation>Emeribe, A. U., Abdullahi, I. N., Etukudo, M. H., Isong, I. K., Emeribe, A. O., Nwofe, J. O., Umeozuru, C. M., Shuaib, B. I., Ajagbe, O. R. O., Dangana, A., Egenti, B. N., &amp; Ghamba, P. E. The pattern of human papillomavirus infection and genotypes among Nigerian women from 1999 to 2019: a systematic review. Annals of medicine, 2021, 53(1), 944–959.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2021.1938201</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><mixed-citation>Ezebialu, C. U., Ezebialu, I. U., Ezeifeka, G. O., Nwobu, R. a. U., Okani, C. O., &amp; Chukwubuike, C. M. Prevalence of cervical human pappillomavirus infection in Awka, Nigeria. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 2020, 08(03), 37–47.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2020.83005</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><mixed-citation>Fowler, J.R., Maani, E.V., Dunton, C.J., Gasalberti, D.P., Jack, B.W. Cervical cancer. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><mixed-citation>Gupta, R., &amp; Gupta, S. Point-of-care tests for human papillomavirus detection in uterine cervical samples: A review of advances in resource-constrained settings. The Indian journal of medical research, 2023, 158(5&amp;6), 509–521.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1143_23</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><mixed-citation>HPV and Pap Test Results: Next Steps after an Abnormal Test. Cancer.gov. 2024.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><mixed-citation>https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening/abnormal-hpv-pap-test-results</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><mixed-citation>Kabir, A., Bukar, M., Nggada, H. A., Rann, H. B., Gidado, A., &amp; Musa, A. B. Prevalence of human papillomavirus genotypes in cervical cancer in Maiduguri, Nigeria. The Pan African medical journal, 2019, 33, 284. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2019.33.284.18338</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><mixed-citation>McBride A. A. Human papillomaviruses: diversity, infection and host interactions. Nature reviews. Microbiology, 2022, 20(2), 95–108.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-021-00617-5</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B28"><label>28.</label><mixed-citation>Molina, M. A., Steenbergen, R. D. M., Pumpe, A., Kenyon, A. N., &amp; Melchers, W. J. G. HPV integration and cervical cancer: a failed evolutionary viral trait. Trends in molecular medicine, 2024, 30(9), 890–902.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B29"><label>29.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2024.05.009</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B30"><label>30.</label><mixed-citation>Morhason-Bello, I. O., Baisley, K., Pavon, M. A., Adewole, I. F., Bakare, R., de Sanjosé, S., Francis, S. C., &amp; Watson-Jones, D. Prevalence and genotype specific concordance of oro-genital and anal human papillomavirus infections among sexually active Nigerian women. Infectious agents and cancer, 2021, 16(1), 59.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B31"><label>31.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13027-021-00398-9</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B32"><label>32.</label><mixed-citation>Mustafa, R. A., Santesso, N., Khatib, R., Mustafa, A. A., Wiercioch, W., Kehar, R., Gandhi, S., Chen, Y., Cheung, A., Hopkins, J., Ma, B., Lloyd, N., Wu, D., Broutet, N., &amp; Schünemann, H. J. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the accuracy of HPV tests, visual inspection with acetic acid, cytology, and colposcopy. International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 2016, 132(3), 259–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.07.024</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B33"><label>33.</label><mixed-citation>Nanda, K., McCrory, D. C., Myers, E. R., Bastian, L. A., Hasselblad, V., Hickey, J. D., &amp; Matchar, D. B. Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review. Annals of internal medicine, 2020, 132(10), 810–819. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-132-10-200005160-00009</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B34"><label>34.</label><mixed-citation>Ohihoin, A. G., Okwuraiwe, P. A., Musa, A. Z., Olorunfemi, G., Onwuamah, C. K., Ige, F., Amoo, O. S., Audu, R., Okogbo, F., Daniyan, B., Swende, T., Onyemelukwe, G., Daru, H., Usman, H., Shittu, O., Musa, J., Ezechi, O. C., &amp; Ujah, I. A. Prevalence and predictors of High-Risk HPV in Nigeria. Advances in Infectious Diseases, 2022, 12(04), 745–757.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B35"><label>35.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.4236/aid.2022.124052</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B36"><label>36.</label><mixed-citation>Okoeguale, J., Samuel, S., Amadi, S., Njoku, A., &amp; Okome, G. Prevalence and distribution of cervical high-risk human papillomavirus infection in a rural community of Edo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology, 2022, 23(4), 437–441.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B37"><label>37.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.4314/ajcem.v23i4.12</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B38"><label>38.</label><mixed-citation>Onwuamah, C. K., Feng, N., Momoh, A. E., Uwandu, M., Ahmed, R. A., Idigbe, I., Vincent, G. D., Ogbu, C. A., Okonkwo, N., Sokei, J., Abimbola, B. S., Ojopagogo, T., Okoli, L. C., Adesina, M., Ezemelue, P. N., Sowunmi, O., Okwuzu, J., Labo Popoola, O. H., Shaibu, J. O., Ohihoin, G. A., … Ezechi, O. C. Prevalence and risk factors for high-risk human papillomavirus infection among women from three southern geopolitical zones of Nigeria. Frontiers in oncology, 2023, 13, 1254304.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B39"><label>39.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2023.1254304</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B40"><label>40.</label><mixed-citation>Rasheed, F. A., Yakasai, I. A., Abdurrahman, A., Usman, A., &amp; Yusuf, N. Human papillomavirus serotypes and determinants among women with invasive cervical cancer in Katsina state, Northwest-Nigeria: a multicentre study. Ecancermedicalscience, 2024, 18, 1714.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B41"><label>41.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2024.1714</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B42"><label>42.</label><mixed-citation>Rume, J., Morhason-Bello, I. O., &amp; Oladokun, A. Assessment of knowledge of human papillomavirus transmission and prevention among tertiary institution students in the Plateau Central Senatorial District, Nigeria. PLOS global public health, 2024, 4(9), e0003273.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B43"><label>43.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0003273</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B44"><label>44.</label><mixed-citation>van den Borst, E., Bell, M., Op de Beeck, K., Van Camp, G., Van Keer, S., &amp; Vorsters, A. Lineages and sublineages of high-risk human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer and precancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 2025, 117(12), 2461–2476.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B45"><label>45.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djaf118</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B46"><label>46.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization. Nigeria to vaccinate 7.7 million girls against leading cause of cervical cancer. [online] Africa Renewal.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B47"><label>47.</label><mixed-citation>https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/october-2023/nigeria-vaccinate-77-million-girls-against-leading-cause-cervical-cancer</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B48"><label>48.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization: WHO. Cervical cancer. 2019.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B49"><label>49.</label><mixed-citation>https://www.who.int/health-topics/cervical-cancer</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B50"><label>50.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization: WHO. Global Leaders Unite to Accelerate Cervical Cancer Elimination Efforts. WHO. 2025.	https://www.who.int/westernpacific/news/item/19-06-2025-global-leaders-unite-to-accelerate-cervical-cancer-elimination-efforts</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B51"><label>51.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization: WHO. WHO recommends DNA testing as a first-choice screening method for cervical cancer prevention. WHO. 2021.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B52"><label>52.</label><mixed-citation>https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/11-09-2021-who-recommends-dna-testing-as-a-first-choice-screening-method-for-cervical-cancer-prevention</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B53"><label>53.</label><mixed-citation>Ye, J., Zheng, L., He, Y., &amp; Qi, X. Human papillomavirus associated cervical lesion: pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions. MedComm, 2023, 4(5), e368.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B54"><label>54.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.368</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B55"><label>55.</label><mixed-citation>Zakka, A., Ayolabi, C., &amp; Olusola, B.. Human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes and risk determinants among Nigerian women with cervical lesions. Microbes and Infectious Diseases /Microbes and Infectious Diseases, 2023, 5(2), 501-515.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B56"><label>56.</label><mixed-citation>https://doi.org/10.21608/mid.2023.235872.1618</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B57"><label>57.</label><mixed-citation>Wei, F., Georges, D., Man, I., Baussano, I., &amp; Clifford, G. M. Causal attribution of human papillomavirus genotypes to invasive cervical cancer worldwide: a systematic analysis of the global literature. Lancet (London, England), 2024, 404(10451), 435–444.	https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01097-3</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B58"><label>58.</label><mixed-citation>St-Martin, G., Thamsborg, L. H., Andersen, B., Christensen, J., Ejersbo, D., Jochumsen, K., Johansen, T., Larsen, L. G., Waldstrøm, M., &amp; Lynge, E. Management of low-grade cervical cytology in young women. Cohort study from Denmark. Acta oncologica (Stockholm, Sweden), 2021; 60(4), 444–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/0284186X.2020.1831061</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B59"><label>59.</label><mixed-citation>Bruno, M. T., Cassaro, N., Bica, F., &amp; Boemi, S. Progression of CIN1/LSIL HPV Persistent of the Cervix: Actual Progression or CIN3 Coexistence. Infectious diseases in obstetrics and gynecology, 2021, 6627531. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6627531</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></article>
